"France in Sweden’s Foreign Policy in the Era of Gustav III’s Reign (1771-1792)"

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Introduction 9

Chapter 1. The Most Faithfull Ally of the Versailles Court: Gustav III’s Reign between 1771 and 1786 21

Prince Gustav and his relations with the court of Versailles 21

The party of the “Hats” regains its power 28

The beginnings of Gustav III’s reign 31

The monarchist coup d’état and the end of the “Age of Liberty” 36

Formal and legal basis of Gustav III’s reign after the August coup 42

Internal reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment 46

Changes in the organisation of the Swedish diplomatic service 52

A foreign policy of Gustav III after the August coup 57

Gustav III’s attitude towards France between 1773 and 1776 62

Attempts at a rapprochement to the St. Petersburg court 68

The Riksdag of 1778–1779 and changes in the internal policy 71

A growing opposition against Gustav III’s reign: The Riksdag of 1786 77

Absolutist tendencies in Gustav III’s internal policy 80

An alliance with France against the court of Copenhagen: Gustav III’s foreign policy between 1778 and 1783 83

Searching a new ally: Gustav III’s foreign trip in the years 1783 and 1784 94

Against the St. Petersburg court: An anti-Russian Swedish policy of 1784–1786 99

Chapter 2. In the Face of the Approaching Storm: The Swedish-French Relations from January 1787 to May 1789 105

The Ambassador 105

Missed opportunities, lost illusions: The internal situation in France in the years 1774–1786 107

The Assembly of Notables: The origins of the opposition of the privileged 112

A guerrilla war between the monarchy and parliaments 118

The attitude of France and Sweden towards the events in Holland 130

France and Sweden towards the Russo-Turkish war 139

Gustav III in the years 1787–1788: The growing conflict with Russia 150

Beginnings of the Swedish-Russian war: The failure of Gustav III 163

The Danish invasion of Sweden: The king’s fight with the noble opposition 171

Between war and peace: Preparations for the campaign of 1789 178

The Ministry of Necker: The time before the first meeting of the Estates-General 181

Chapter 3. Growing Concern: Swedish Diplomacy Towards the Events in France from May 1789 to August 1790 187

From the Estates-General to the first reforms of the National Constituent Assembly 187

Gustav III in the face of the July events in France 197

A new reshuffle on the French political scene: The second disturbance of Paris people: The first attempt to explain mechanisms of a revolution 202

The Turin mission of the Baron von Rehausen 220

Around diplomacy and war: Politics of Gustav III in the period of the second Russian campaign 224

The Paris mission in the second half of 1789 228

Evert Taube and Hans Axel von Fersen 233

The internal situation and international position of France in the light of Staël von Holstein’s account (January–July 1790) 239

The campaign of 1790 and the peace with Russia 249

At a crossroads: The foreign policy of Gustav III from August 1790 to May 1791 257

Chapter 4. First Attempts to Rescue the Royal Family: The Swedish Diplomacy Towards France from August 1790 to June 1791 257

The Russian perspective: St. Petersburg mission of Curt von Stedingk 265

The revolution slows down: The situation in France from August to December 1790 271

The growing anxiety: The situation in France from January to May 1791 281

Louis XVI and the king’s first attempts to leave Paris 290

A trusted friend: Hans Axel von Fersen and his role in preparations for the royal family’s escape 293

Gustav III’s attitude towards the plans of Louis XVI’ escape 301

Chapter 5. The Failed Escape of Louis XVI and First Attempts to Organise the Anti-French Coalition (June–October 1791) 311

The Varennes affair and its consequences 311

Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein towards the French monarchy crisis 315

Gustav III in Aachen, first attempts to intervene in France 319

The Koblenz mission of Evert Taube and the Swedish diplomacy’s efforts to obtain the support of the German princes 331

The Austrian mission of Hans Axel von Fersen 335

The Swedish diplomacy’s efforts at the Madrid court 361

From the Paris perspective: French affairs described by Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein and Erik Bergstedt 368

The Swedish-Russian negotiations and St. Petersburg’s reaction to French events 382

A great hope of a counterrevolution: Gustav III’s actions from early August to mid-October 1791 388

Chapter 6. With Russia Against the Revolution: Swedish Diplomacy Towards France in the Period from the Late October 1791 to Late March 1792 401

France on the road to war with monarchical Europe 401

The efforts of Swedish diplomacy aimed to sign a subsidy treaty with the court of Madrid 429

The Koblenz mission of Carl Gustaf Oxenstierna 436

In the service of heart and head: The Brussels mission of Hans Axel von Fersen 456

Between fear and hope: The actions of Curt von Stedingk in St. Petersburg in the period from the end of October 1791 until the end of March 1792 485

A failed leader of a monarchical crusade: Gustav III in the last months of his life and reign 495

Conclusion 517

Sources and Studies 525

Index of Personal Names 543