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involvesaffectiveandconativefactors,whichmayalsobeconsistentdeterminantsofan
individual’sengagementwiththeL2”(2007,p.256).Takingintoconsiderationadvances
inresearchonsuchcognitiveabilitiesasworkingmemory,noticingorlearningfrom
recastinginthelastdecades(cf.Robinson,2002b),itbecomesevidentthattheconcept
ofFLaptitudehaschangedalotsinceitsoriginsandiscontinuallyevolving.As
Dörnyei(2005,p.33)rightlyremarks,FLaptitudehasbecomeanumbrella-termrelated
toanumberofcognitivefactorscreatingacompositegaugeregardedasthegeneral
capacitytomasteraforeignlanguage.Nevertheless,theconceptofFLaptitudeistradi-
tionallyusedintheliteraturetorefertoFLaptitudetestinginthegeneralsense,which
makesitconceptuallysimilartoanothergeneralterm–intelligence(cf.Carroll,1959;
Robinson,2007;Skehan,2002),whichisthefocusofthefollowingsection.
1.2.Intelligence–ageneralcognitiveability
Thereisstillnoconsensusamongresearchersasregardsthedefinitionofintelligence.
SternbergandDetterman(1986)collectedexperts’viewsonthisterm,whichrevealed
thattherearethreebroadgroupsofdefinitionsofintelligenceincluding:(1)theabilityto
learnonthebasisofpreviousexperience;(2)theabilitytoadapttoanewenvironment;
and(3)themetacognitiveability,whichstandsfortheawarenessofone’smentalpro-
cessesandtheabilitytocontrolthem(cf.Hornowska,2004;Nęcka,2003).
In1997,thejournalIntelligencepublishedacontemporary‘mainstream’definition
ofintelligencesupportedby52experts.Intelligencewasdefinedasaverygeneralcog-
nitiveability,whichincludestheabilityofreasoning,planning,solvingproblems,ab-
stractthinking,understandingcomplexproblems,fastlearningandlearningfromexpe-
rience(Gottfredson,1997).Thus,itsmaincharacteristicistheabilitytocopewithnovel-
tyandcomplexity(cf.Nęcka,2003).Whatmakesthematterevenmorecomplex,isthe
observationthatthisconceptisculture-bound.Ananalysisofdefinitionsofintelli-
genceintheUnitedStatesaswellasEuropean,AsianandAfricancountriesrevealed
thatconceptionsofintelligencearevaried;especiallydefinitionsinAsianandAfrican
countriesareverydifferentfromwesternconcepts(cf.Sternberg,2004).Forexample,in
Indiatheconceptofintelligencecanbetracedbacktophilosophicalpsychologywhich
placesemphasisontheanalysis,traininganddevelopmentofhumanmindinorderto
reachreligiousenlightenmentandreleasefromrebirth.Theclosesttranslationofintelli-
genceisBuddhiwhichmeansawarenessorconsciousnessandreferstosuchspiritual
processesaswakingup,recognisingandunderstanding.Consequently,incontrastto
westernconcepts,intelligenceinIndianphilosophyistreatedasaprocessorstate,the
accomplishmentofwhichdependsoneffortandmotivationofanindividual(Baral
&Das,2004,p.272).
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