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maybeeitheraproofofmisunderstanding(e.g.thatoneoftheparticipantsdoes
nothearorunderstandtheother,orthattheyareunabletocommunicate,
e.g.sick),orasignalofalackofwillingnesstocooperate(unlessthereisany
indicationthatthesenderdoesnotcomplywiththeprincipleofcooperation).
OtherauthorsdevelopedGrice'stheoryandproposedlongerlistsofrules,adding
totheabovementionede.g.amaximofpolitenessoramaximumof
informativeness.Discoveringthesender'sintentionscansometimesleadto
offendingtheinterlocutor(eveninthecaseofironicorsarcasticstatements),so
itisnecessarytoknowthesocio-culturalconditionsoftheinterlocutorinorder
nottomakeanunintentionalmistakethatcouldleadtocommunicationfailure.
Elementsofknowledgeaboutculturearealsointroducedintothetheoryof
speechacts,becausetheeffectivenessofspeechactslargelydependsalsoonnon-
linguisticculturalfactors.Aninterestingpracticalcognitiveapproachtospeech
actswaspresentedbyTabakowska(2001).Shenotedthatsomeofthespeechact
categoriescanbegroupedintodetailedsubdivisions:constitutive,expressive
(thank,praise,apologise,greet)anddeclarative(name,marry,condemn,
announce),informative:assertive(claim,express,describe,assume)and
questionsforinformation(ask),obligatory:directives(ask,order,advise),and
commissives(promise,propose).Thisclassificationmakesitpossibletoanalyse
therelationshipbetweenthegrammaticalandphoneticstructureofasentenceand
aspecificspeechactinto:adjudicatingsentences:constitutiveact(e.g.'Iappoint
youasgeneral'),informative(e.g.'Iboughtacar'),obligatory(e.g.'youleftthe
keysinthecar'),askingsentences:informativeact(e.g.'atwhattimedostores
open?')andobligatory(e.g.'couldyouopenthewindow?'),demandingsentences:
obligatoryact(e.g.'closethewindow!’,Tabakowska,2001).
Althoughspeechacttheory,byitsverynature,assumesthatinteractiveuse
oflanguageisessential,ithasnopreciseassumptionsconcerningspecific
phonetic-acousticstructureofexpressiveconversation.Spontaneousspeechis
oftencharacterisednotonlybythelackofcorrectnessofgrammaticalstructures,
butalsobyvarioustypesoflinguisticandacousticfluidityofexpression,unusual
elements(e.g.,pauses,errors,repetitions,varioustypesofsoundsthatarenotpart
ofthelexiconorthephoneticalphabet).
Speechadaptationisfrequentlydescribedasalinearprocess,with
similaritiesincreasingoverthecourseofaconversation:‘thesituationwherethe
observedbehavioursoftwointeractants,althoughdissimilaratthestartofthe
interaction,aremovingtowardsbehaviouralmatching’(Burgoonetal.1995).
Itisdefinedintermsofsynchronyandconvergence;differentiationintermsof
asynchrony(orsynchrony)anddivergence.Synchronyreferstothesituation
wheretwospeakersadoptsimilarprosodicstrategiese.g.whenaspeakerraises
hisvoiceintensity,theirinterlocutordoesittoo.Convergenceisrealizedwhen
interlocutor’sbehavioursaccommodatetowardprosodicpatternmatching
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