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JanIwanek:Standardizationofmoderndemocracy
17
ereigntyofthecollectivebody,thatisthenation,becomeinternalizedinthe
socialconscience.Theconceptofthepeoplewasextensivelyusedinthe19th
century,unlikeinthe20thcentury,whentheterm“nation”cametoplay
aleadingroleinthepoliticalnomenclature.Areinterpretationoftheconcept
ofthenationwasmade.Itwasre-qualifiedfromanethnicaltoapolitical
entity(theentireelectorate,allthoseentitledtopoliticalrights).Itmustbe
noted,however,thatsuchextensiveempowermentofthepeople,todayan
obviousfact,wasachievedattheturnofthe1960s(alongwithacomplete
fulfillmentoftheprincipleoftheuniversalityoftheactiverighttovote).
Afterall,itmustnotbeforgottenthattheconceptofthepeopleishistorically
variable.GiovanniSartoriaptlynotedthatthenewrealityrequiredanew
name.This,inturn,openedthediscussionaboutmasssociety.
5
However,he
treatsthecollectivemoreasaformoflegalfiction,anabstractentity.Today
thepeople,therefore,issynonymouswiththenation,understoodinlawas
afreepeople,enjoyingpoliticalrightsandotherfreedomssuchasfreedom
ofbelief,assemblyorpublicactivity.Indeterminingthescopeofempower-
ment,politicalcriteriaarenotallowedtobeused.Theideaofuniversality
canbemostappropriatelycharacterizednegativelyasabanonusinggroup
exemptionsintheutilizationoftheactiverighttovote.
Inthe20thcentury,theparliamentary-cabinetsystemofgovernment
achieveddominanceinEurope.Restrictionsoftheexecutivebranch,charac-
teristicofthosetimes,resultedfromthereluctancetowardsimperialpower
afterthefallofthethreeempires(Russia,GermanyandAustro-Hungary).
Itcannot,however,escapeattention,thatasemi-presidentialsystemofgov-
ernment(presidential-parliamentarysystem)wasdevelopingatthesame
time,which,despiteitsdeceptivename,offersmuchmorepowertotheexec-
utivethanAmericanpresidentialism.
Inthe20thcentury,theconceptofhumanrightsandfreedomsbeganto
takeshape.FromthetimesoftheFrenchRevolution(declarationofhuman
rights)whichinthatepochtookonlessofapracticalbutmoreofatheoreti-
cal,doctrinalandbasedonpostulates(axioms)meaning,apracticeofestab-
lishinginstitutionsfortheprotectionoftherightsandconstitutionalguar-
anteesoftheindividualwasslowlybeingintroduced.Theconceptofrights
andfreedoms,includingtheconstitutionalrightsandfreedoms,stillremains
adynamic,constantlydevelopingconcept,ideaandsystemprinciple.Not
onlyarenewlawsbeingcreated,butolder,previouslyestablishedlawsare
alsobeinglookedintowithgreatattention(suchastherighttoprivacy).We
arealsolookingintowaysofprotectingtheexistinglaws.Thishappenswhen
moderndemocraciesandthepracticeofsociallife(economic,political,and
5
G.Sartori:Teoriademokracji.Trans.P.Amsterdamski,D.Grinberg.Warszawa
1994,pp.42143.
