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THEPUBLICORDERINREPUBLICANROME
fundamentally.Anumberofcourtsappearedthen,outofwhich
thefollowingarewellcertifiedquaestiones:desicariisetveneficiis,
testamentarianummaria(thatisagainstthefalsificationofwills),
deiniuriis(againstlawlessness),demaiestateandderepetundis.Ob-
viously,theseregulationswerelaterbeingcorrectedandaltered;
stilltheypreservedtheirbasicshapetillthetwilightoftheRepub-
lic.2,Augustusreformedthemconsiderablyin18B.C.,havingimple-
mentedlexIuliaiudiciorumpublicorumwhichprovidednormsfor
thecriminalprocedurebeforethequaestiones.2;Sulla)slawsdesica-
riisetveneficiis,defalsisanddeiniuriis,remainedinforceaswell
aslexIuliaderepetundispassedinthetimesofCaesar.Newcourts
wereintroduced:deambitu,deadulteriis(coërcendis),deannona,de
maiestate,depeculatu,devipublicaetprivata,deresiduis.29
UntiltheepochofAugustus,eachofthemincludedalsoproce-
duralprovisionsforeachquaestioseparately.Atrialwasconducted
onthebasisofaprivateindictmentbroughtinbyaRomancitizen;
itwasadversarialinnatureandbasedontheequalityofeachof
theparties.30Tequaestiones,establishedinthetimesofAugustus
andearlier,functionedinthefirstandsecondcenturieswithless
andlessimportance.DuringtheEmpire,thesystemofquaestiones
perpetuaewasreplacedbythejurisdictionwieldedbytheemperor
andhisofcials.Eventuallytheywerecancelledduringthereign
ofCaracallaorsomewhatlater.31
Nevertheless,thecoërcitioprocedurewasnotliquidatedbythede-
velopmentofRomancriminaljurisdiction,althoughtowardsthe
endoftheRepublicproceedingsofthiskindwerenotapartof
thestandardcriminalprocedureanylongerjtheoretically,they
shouldbedistinguishedfromtheappropriatejurisdiction(iudica-
2,Santalucia(1998)137-64;cf.Mossakowski(1993b);Kuryłowicz(2014)116-25.
(1998)195.
(2014)116-18,123-4;cf.Volkmann(1969)50-62;Bringmann(1973).
30Cerami(1998);cf.Schiller(1949)323;Santalucia(1998)165-88.
31Santalucia(1998)223cf.213-15.
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