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Introduction
13
Originallytheonlyfieldofcompetitioninthehumanworldwasfighting
andphysicalviolence.Someresearchersclaimthatalreadycavepaintings,
suchasthoseinLascauxandAltamira,mayhaveresultedfromsomeform
ofcompetition–buttheseareonlyungroundedspeculations,andwelack
anyevidencethatmightgivesuchclaimsevenasemblanceofplausibility.
Writtenrecordsoftheoldesthistoricalcultureslikewisementiononlyone
typeofagon–themilitaryone.ItisinancientGreecethatwefindtheearliest
formsofsymboliccompetition.
Many19th-and20th-centurybooksstresstheuniquecharacterofGreek
cultureascomparedtootherancientcultures.Whatwasrarelyobserved,
however,isthatamongthemanyinnovationsandinventions,novelideas
andconceptsthattheGreekscontributedtohumanlife,oneofthosethat
provedofthegreatestsignificance,wastheirabilitytotransferconflictsonto
asymbolicplane,andtotransplantagonisticbehaviourfromthespheres
ofwar,struggleandviolenceintothatofcontests,gamesandregularforms
ofcompetitionwhoseaimisasymbolicratherthanmaterialadvantage.The
conceptofkleos(Gr.κλέος–renown,glory),alreadyappearinginHomer’s
epics,inclassicalGreekreferredtobothformsofcompetition,primarily
tothefruitsofmilitaryvictory,butwithwhatwemightnowcallGcultural’
connotations,sinceitwasassociatedwithachievingasolid,advantageous
andpositivestatusinthememoryofthefuturegenerations.Intheclassical
period(5thc.BCE),thissymbolisationofstrugglewascomplementedbythe
tragicandcomicagon,representedbytheearliestGartisticcontests’inthe
strictsenseofthetermasknowntohistorians.Likemoderncompetitions,
thoseancientonesfunctionedincomplexsocialcontextswhichwecanonly
partlyunderstandtoday.
TheEuropeanMiddleAgesdidnotcontributemuchtothemodel
ofagonismworkedoutinancientGreece.WeusuallyfollowNorbertElias
inassumingthatinstitutionsofGhighculture’begantotakeshapeinthose
medievalsocietieswhichachievedsufficientinternalstabilityfortheruling
socialclassestobeableandwillingtoinvestinsuchactivity–whichbrought
nomilitaryorpoliticalbenefits,butcouldincreasetheirprestige.Suchwere
thesocialoriginsofcourtlyculture,withitstroubadourtournaments,poetic
contestsandmusicians’displaysofskill.TheRenaissancetookoverthese
institutions,givingthemastrongandextensivebaseintheformofinstitu-
tionalisedartisticpatronage.Thismodelof(whatwemightterm,afterElias)
Gcivilised’agonisticbehaviourrepresentedbyinstitutionsofGhighculture’
continuedtilltheendofthefeudalera.Rulersstillengagedtheirtroops
indeadlycombatandexposedtheirsocietiestotheravagesofpoliticalfeud.
Still,theyfoundentertainmentandsoughttogainsplendourbytakingpas-
siveandsometimesevenactivepartincompetitionsbetweenpoets,painters,
andmusiccomposers.Suchcontestswererarelygivenastrictformalframe-
