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24|Chapter1.TheOtherMethodologyoftheOther
compassingsocietywhiletheBolshevikonedidsowithproductiveforces;
bothconstructspreachedandputintopracticemilitantly.Tecitizens’
solefunctionwastoactasbrothersorenemiesofanabstractsociety,ofles
malhereuxinwhosenameRobespierreruledandwhomhemadeevenmore
unhappy-orsimplyeliminated.
40
WhereasSovietcitizenswereturnedinto
meansofproduction,thecitizensoftheReichturnedthemselves,byfree
elections,intoexecutorsofHnationalwill”whichdemandedanexclusionof
definitegroupsoffellow-citizensandaninfluxofthosewhopassedthetest
ofidentity.Hereagaintheveryconceptofidentityshoweditsdoubleface.
Letusnotforgetthatstrictidentityincitizenshipwasabusedbytotalitar-
iansystems.ItisnotanaccidentthattheNazisdeprivedtheJewsoftheir
Germancitizenship,whichbegantheShoah.
MovingawayfromthetotalitarianpraxisofCommunistcitizenshipand
drawingonMarxisttheory,onecanarguethatinmodernitycitizenship
emergedasaformofdomination(ratherthanmembership)whichopposed
andreplacedsubjection.Onecannoteahypertrophyofthesubjects’duties
totheabsolutemonarchyhereandsimilarproportionsinmoderncitizenship.
Tesubjectsofamonarch,asJudithN.Shklarimplies,mayhavebeenmade
secureandprosperousbygrantingallpowertotheirruler.EvenHaNero,”
sheaddssardonically,wasdangerousonlytohiscourt.41Teeraoflspiri-
tualist’citizenshipfollowed.Arewenotstillinanageofthislspiritualist’
citizenshipwhichMarxdiagnosed:theideaofrightsisnotfullyrealized
incontemporaryliberaldemocracies;inparticulareconomicrightsarefre-
quentlyneitherformulatednorrespected.Beinganinvolvedandempathetic
citizen,agenuinefellowhuman(e)being,oneknowsthatitisneverenough
toremindabouttheunemployedandthehomeless.Careforthellosers’of
marketeconomycannotbutbecomethepriorityofbothstateinstitutions
andcivilsociety.Migrants,theprecarious,thesick,thepoor,theimprisoned
areentitledtobehelpedbycitizens,asarepeopledeprivedofpoliticaland
civilrights,membersofminoritieswhoweredeniedcitizenship.
40
HannahArendtdiscussesRobespierreandlesmalheureuxinOnRevolution;inherHOn
HumanityinDarkTimes:ToughtsaboutLessing”thephilosopherwritesonfraternité:
Hthatfraternityhasitsnaturalplaceamongtherepressedandpersecuted,theexploitedand
humiliated,whomtheeighteenthcenturycalledtheunfortunates,lesmalheureux,andthe
nineteenthcenturythewretched,lesmisérables;”MeninDarkTimes(SanDiego,NewYork
andLondon:HarcourtBrace&Company,1993),14.
41
JudithN.Shklar,AmericanCitizenship:TeQuestforInclusion,TeTannerLectureson
HumanValues(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1998),32.