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27
fragmentspositionedatthebeginningoftitlesonmandatumandemptiovenditio6.For
societas,itisthestatementmadebyPomponiusthatthiscontractcanbeenteredetreet
verbisetpernuntiumthatconfirmsthegeneralrule7.Onlytheintroductioninthetitleon
locatioconductiolacksthisqualification,butthisdoesnotcreateanissue,asthegeneral
rule,butalsosimilaritytosalewhereitisclearlysaid,wouldmakeiteasilyasuperflu-
ousrepetition.
2.Thereishoweveraproblem,deficiencyinthesourcesregardingthesituationsthat
wouldnormallyoccurwiththissortofcontracts.Questionwhenthecontractisactually
createdwasnotdealtwitheitherbythejuristsortheemperors.Also,thesamesituationis
withcloselyconnectedissueofhowtheriskofpossiblelossincurredinthetimebetween
thedispatchingofmessageanditsacceptanceisapportionedbetweentheparties.There
isnoprinciplethatwouldgiveauniformsolutionorcasesthatwouldgiveguidance.
Regularexplanationforthissituation,thelackofsources,whenitisratherrarely
tackled,isfoundinRomancomprehensionofcontractasaunity8.Separateexpressions
ofwillintheprocessofcontractconclusionwhichwouldbeequivalenttothemodern
termsofofferandacceptancewerenotspecificallyrecognizednordiscussed9.Onlythe
contractasawholewastheobjectofconsiderations.
Promiseorpollicitatio,asaunilateraldeclarationcreatingabindingobligation10,
whichhadanessentialroleinthedevelopmentofmoderncontractualdoctrineduring
theMiddleAgesandrepresentsthecoreelementinconsiderationsonthemomentof
contractconclusioninterabsentes11,hadextremelylimitedapplicationinRomanlaw.
Generally,thepromisedidnotcreateanobligationforthepromisorwhichwouldbe
actionable,exceptinthecasewherethepromisewasmadetogivemoneyortodosome-
6
FormandateD.17,1,1(Paul.32aded.)andforsaleD.18,1,1,2(Paul.33aded.).
7
D.17,2,4pr.(Modest.3reg.).Ontextanditsimportancecf.U.Brasiello,Obligatiorecontracta[in:]
StudiinonorediPietroBonfantenelXLannod’insegnamento,vol.2,Milano1930,p.551,570;V
.Arangio-
-Ruiz,Lasocietàindirittoromano,Napoli1950,p.58;F.Wieacker,DasGesellschaftsverhältnisdesklas-
sischenRechts,ZSS,Bd.69:1952,p.324sqq.;M.Kaser,DasrömischePrivatrecht,vol.1,München1971,
p.574;F.S.Meissel,Societas.StrukturundTypenvielfaltdesrömischenGesellschaftsvertragesinVertrag-
spraxisundJurisprudenz,Wien2004,p.74.
8
Cf.J.Augner,VertragsschlussohneZugangderAnnahmeerklärung,FrankfurtamMain1985,p.25;
R.Zimmermann,TheLawofObligations.RomanFoundationsoftheCivilianTradition,CapeTown1990,
p.563;J.D.Harke,RömischesRecht,München2008,p.55.
9
Althoughitshouldbestressedthattheproblemofseparatewillsbuildingconsensusandtheirunder-
standinghasbeenanimportantelementindiscussionsonerror.Cf.M.Diesselhorst,ZumIrrtumbeiVertrags-
schluss[in:]SympoticaFranzWieacker,Göttingen1970,p.180sqq.;J.D.Harke,Irrtumüberwesentliche
Eigenschaften.DogmatischeunddogmengeschichtlicheUntersuchung,Berlin2003;M.J.Schermeier,rez.
Harke,J.D.,Irrtum,ZSSGA,Bd.122:2005,p.392sqq.;idem,Anachronistische,p.80sqq.;W.Ernst,
Irrtum:EinStreifzugdurchdieDogmengeschichte[in:]StörungenderWillensbildungbeiVertragsschluss,
Tübingen2007,p.1sqq.
10
ThedefinitionofpollicitatiowasgivenbyUlpianusinD.50,12,3pr.(Ulp.4disp.):Pactumestdu-
orumconsensusatqueconventio,pollicitatioveroofferentissoliuspromissum.Etideoilludestconstitutum,
ut,siobhonorempollicitatiofueritfacta,quasidebitumexigatur.Sedetcoeptumopus,licetnonobhonorem
promissum,perficerepromissoreocogetur,etestconstitutum.Cf.G.G.Archi,La,pollicitatio’neldiritto
romano,„RivistaperleScienzeGiuridiche”,N.S.AnnoVIII,fasc.3,1933(=G.G.Archi,Scrittididiritto
romano,vol.2,Milano1981),p.1299sqq.
11
Cf.J.Gordley,ThePhilosophicalOriginsofModernContractDoctrine,Oxford1991,p.45sqq.,73
sqq.
