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learningoutcomes(Popham,1987:680).InforeignlanguagetestingPearson
(1988)referredtothispracticeastheuseoftestsasleversforchange.
Andrewsetal.(2002:208)usethetermengineeredwashbacktoreferto
theattempttoimplementchangethroughtheintroductionoradaptationof
examinations.Aswewillseeinlatersectionstheseviewsarecontroversial.
Inappliedlinguisticsresearchtheeffectsofexaminationsonteaching
(WallandAlderson,1993:41)andlearning(Bailey,1996:259;Wall,1997:
291)areknownaswashbackorbackwash(Hughes,1993;Weir,1990),terms
whichareusedinterchangeably.Thissectionaimsonlytoofferworking
definitionsoftermsandallconceptsraisedwillbefullyexploredinlater
sectionsandchapters.AldersonandWall(1993:117)definewashbackas
thingsthatteachersandlearnersdoHthattheywouldnotnecessarilyotherwise
dobecauseofthetest”(emphasisremoved).Green(2007:1),takinginto
considerationwhathasbeenlearntaboutthewashbackphenomenainthe
decadefollowingthosefirstdefinitions(seereviewbelow),seeswashback
asHgroundedintherelationshipbetweenpreparationforsuccessonatest
andpreparationforsuccessbeyondthetest,inthedomaintowhichthetest
isintendedtogeneraliseandtowhichitmaycontrolaccess.”
Someresearcherstakeawiderview,lookingbeyondteachingandlearn-
ing.Thetermusedtorefertostudiesofthistypeisimpact,definedbyWall
(1997:291)asHanyoftheeffectsthatatestmayhaveonindividuals,poli-
ciesorpractices,withintheclassroom,theschool,theeducationalsystem
orsocietyasawhole.”Saville(2010:2),followingHamp-Lyons(1997:299),
seestestimpactasaHsuperordinateconcept”whichincludeswashback.
Adifferentapproachtotherelationshipbetweentests,teachingand
learningistoconsidertheimpact,orinfluence,thetesthasasoneofthe
qualitiesofthetest.BachmanandPalmer(1996:17)proposethatHthe
mostimportantqualityofatestisitsusefulness”andofferamodeloftest
usefulnesswhichincludesthequalitiesofHreliability,constructvalidi-
ty,authenticity,interactiveness,impactandpracticality”(ibid.emphasis
added).Thismodelisgovernedbythreeprinciples,whichviewtestuse-
fulnessasabalanceofthesesixqualities,alloranyofwhichshouldbe
consideredonlyintermsofthetestinquestionandthecontextinwhich
itisimplemented.Thuswhendesigningatest,BachmanandPalmerurge
carefulconsiderationoftheconsequenceswhichmaycomeabout(1996:
35)asaresultoftheusesofthetestresults.
Messick,bycontrast,placeswashbackwithintheconceptofvalidity.
Ratherthanlistingdifferenttypesofvalidity,heunifiesthembyconsidering
theHcontent,criteriaandconsequences”(1995:742)ofatest.Thenotionof
washbackisthenplacedwithintheconsequentialaspectofvalidity.Weir
(2005:44–49)extendsthenotionofconsequentialvalidity,placingitwithin
asocio-cognitiveframework,whereheexamineshowthetestisresponded
toinagivencontext.Partofthisresponseishowscoresareinterpreted,
oneaspectofwhichforhimiswashback.Morrow(1986:6)usestheterm
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