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TheInfluenceofAgeandL2…
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changes,develops,andbecomesmoresimilartoL2,theinfluenceofL1is
usuallylessvisible.Ontheotherhand,thesituationismorecomplex,because,
althoughadvancedL2learnersareobviouslylesssensitivetoL1influencein
everydayconversationsandsimplesentences,theyalsousemorecomplicated
languagestructuresandformswhichagaincanbesignificantlyaffectedby
theirmothertonguethusshowingagainexamplesoftransfer(Arabski,1997;
Towell&Hawkins,1994).Generallyspeaking,languagetransferisusedto
simplifyL2structuresandtheiruse,nottocomplicatethem(Arabski,2006).
Whatisalsoessentialisthefactthatthemothertongueandthetargetlan-
guageneedtobegeneticallyconnectedtoeachothertoallowtheoccurrence
oftransferbetweenthem(Arabski,1997).Interferenceislikelytoappearwhen
thereisacrucialsimilaritymeasurebetweenthefirstandthesecondlanguage
(Ellis,1994).Dependingonhowclosethelanguagesareandwhatkindof
similarcharacteristicstheyshare,thetransferwilloccurindifferentsituations
anddifferentstructures(Arabski,1997;Towell&Hawkins,1994).Althoughit
seemsthattransfermayaffectalllinguisticlevels,suchasphonetics,phonol-
ogy,syntax,morphology,lexiconanddiscourse(Towell&Hawkins,1994),it
shouldbeaddedthatnoteverystructurefromL1maybetransferredtoL2.
Herethenotionoftransferabilityisaverysignificantfactor.Itissaidthatonly
thosestructureswhicharepsycho-linguisticallyneutralcanbetransferred.It
isveryinterestingthatL2studentsdonottendtotransfer,forexample,idi-
oms(Arabski,1997;Kellerman,1977).Still,structuresfromL1whichsound
naturallyinL2areveryfrequentlytransferred.Itwasalsoproventhattransfer
maybeobservedmuchmoreoftenininformalsituations,inwhichaspeaker
doesnotfocusontheform,butonconveyingthesenseofthemessageitself
(Arabski,1997,2006).Onecannotalsoforgetthatlanguagetransferdoesnot
occuronlybetweenL1andL2.InthecaseofL3acquisition,thesituation
becomesevenmorecomplicatedandpossibilitiesofinterlanguagetransfer
multiply(Arabski,2006).
ThirdLanguageAcquisition
Firstofall,ithastobesaidthatformanyyearsacquisitionofthirdorany
additionallanguagewassimplyclassifiedasapartofSLA(e.g.,Cenoz,2000;
Jessner,2006).HoweverforthelasttwentyyearsThirdLanguageAcquisition
(TLA)hasbeendescribedasaseparateprocess,clearlydifferentfromSLA
(Chłopek,2011),andthisdifferencewillbeimportantforthepurposeofthis
article.WhenonecomparesSLAandTLAitiseasytonoticethatthereare
copiousdifferencesbetweentheseprocesses.However,themainandprobably
