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Onereasonoftencitedforthedepopulationofthearea–increasingconflictandvio-
lence–referstoconflictsbetweenPuebloangroupsorbetweenPuebloandnon-Pueblo
people.Evidenceofconflictisclearlyvisiblearchaeologically:siteslocatedinplaces
difficulttoaccess;defensivebuildings,architecturalfeatures,andsettlementlayouts;the
presenceofburnedstructures;humanremainswithevidenceofviolentdeath;androck
artdepictingviolentinteractions.DuringthethirteenthcenturyA.D.manytypesofde-
fensivearchitecture–includingtowers,undergroundtunnelsconnectingtwoormore
structuresinasettlement,loopholes,andmassivestonewallsthatpartlyorfullyen-
closedvillages–wereconstructedintheMesaVerderegion(Kenzle1993,1997;Lipe
andVarien1999a,1999b;Thompsonetal.1997;Varienetal.1996).Somesucharchi-
tecturalfeatureswerebuiltinthetwelfthcenturyA.D.aswell;however,farmorewere
constructedduringthethirteenthcentury.Thesearchitecturalchangeswereassociated
withpopulationaggregationandrelocation;duringthethirteenthcentury,mostpeople
livedinlargesettlementssituatedsuchthattheyweredifficulttoaccessandeasytode-
fend.Inmanyvillages,watersourcesweresecuredwithintheboundaryofthesettlement
orwereatleastnearby.
Asmentionedabove,defensiveaspectsofancientPueblositeswerenotedasearlyas
thenineteenthcenturyinrecordsofthefirstmilitaryandscientificexpeditionsandin
initialarchaeologicalrecords.Althoughmanyscholarspointedoutthatatleastsome
characteristicsofthearchitectureweredefensive,therehavebeenonlysporadicattempts
tostudythistopicmorethoroughly.Anearlyattempttoclassifyandsystematizepossibly
defensivearchitecturewasundertakenbyMalcolmF.Farmerinhisarticle,ASuggested
TypologyofDefensiveSystemsoftheSouthwest,publishedintheSouthwesternJournal
ofAnthropologyin1957orAlbertSchulmaninhisstudiesonthetowersinMesaVerde
andGallinaregions(Schulman1950).LaterstudiesincluderesearchbySusanC.Kenzle
onenclosingwallsatselectedsitesintheMesaVerderegion(Kenzle1993,1997)or
LeBlancstudiesondefensivesites(LeBlanc1999).
WhenconsideringthedepopulationoftheMesaVerderegionweshouldalsoremem-
berthatEuro-AmericansandIndiansperceiveancientPueblohabitationsdifferently
(Naranjo1995).AccordingtocontemporaryPuebloIndians,theseplaceswerenotaban-
doned.Instead,theyarestillinhabitedbyspiritsoftheirancestors.Theseancientsites
arerespectedbymodernAmericanIndians,andsomearementionedinoraltraditions.