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Thepredicamentofassessment
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isdeemedinsufcient.Mostprobablytherstexaminationsstructuredforthis
purposewerethe19thcenturyIndianCivilServiceExams(Bachman,2015).In
certainsituations,evaluationproceduresareneededtoshowdiferentiationin
agroup,e.g.whensomekindofprioritizingistheaim;thePolishsecondary
schoolleavingmaturaexamshaveservedthispurposesincethemomentthey
replacedcollegeentranceexaminations.Itshould,however,benotedthatthe
introductionofanarbitrarycut-ońpointmayaddadeselectionfunctionto
theprioritizationone.Inothercontexts,certifcationconfirmsthatcertainpro-
ciencystandardshavebeenmet.Oneoftheoldestexamplesofcertification
inhighereducationisthedoctoraldiplomaincanonlawgrantedtoNicolaus
CopernicusatFerrara,areputedrefugiumpauperorum,wherestudentsunable
toordcertificationatmoreexpensiveItalianuniversitiesusedtotaketheir
examinations.Acertificateoradiplomacanfunctionasadocumentgranting
accesstoaprofessionortohigherlevelsofeducation.Finally,evaluationmight
begearedtowardanassessmentofexaminees)proficiencylevels.Tisparticular
aim,whichatthesametimeallowstesttakerstoidentifytheirstrengthsand
weaknesses,leadsustotheissueofexaminationsandcertificationinlanguage
educationasadiagnosisisafunctionthatliesattheheartofalargenumber
ofpopularinternationallanguageexaminations.
2.Qualitativevs.quantitativeapproachestoevaluationinlanguage
education
Beginningsofevaluationinlanguageeducationandthemovefrominformalto
moreformalizedproceduresdatebacktothebeginningofthe20thcenturyand
theCambridgeProfciencyinEnglishexaminations.TeGrammar-Translation
Methodwasstillwidelyused,aphenomenonunderstandableintheyearsof
consolidatingmasseducation.Itsemphasisonreadingcomprehensionandwrit-
ingskillswasnotconducivetotheimplementationoforalapproachespropagat-
edbytheReformMovement.Assubjective,integrativeandholistictendencies
excludinganyobjectivemeasurementprevailedatthattime,thismethodcanbe
consideredanearlyversionofthequalitativeparadigm.Essaysandtranslations
presentintheevaluationprocess,sostronglycriticizednow,donotdeserve
thecontemptoftoday)seducators,asintheearlydaystheywereanective
measuretofamiliarizeschoollearners,comingfromdiverse,ofenpoorfamily
backgrounds,withhighcultureandliterarylanguageregistersunknownto
them.Whatismore,outsidetheEnglish-speakingcountries,translationfrom