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Thepredicamentofassessment
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test-takingareexpectedtohaveaneńectbeyondtheclassroom,wereconsidered
unfounded.Harmfulwashbackwasalsowarnedagainstasopponentsofquan-
titativeapproachestomeasuringeducationalachievementallegedthatobjective
testshadtwoundesiredeńects:thatstudentsdonotlearnwhatwewantthem
tolearnandthattheydonotlearnthewaywewantthemtolearn.
Anothersetofproblemswithobjectivetestingarosebecauseofcommoner-
rorsinscoring:thesameaspectsuchasgrammarorspellingwasscoredseveral
timesinseveraldińerentitems.Pointsweredeductedforwronganswers,which
discouragedstudentsfromenteringinteractionandtakingrisks,i.e.fromcom-
munication.Proportionsplannedintestspecificationswerefrequentlychanged
bytheintroductionofextendedscoringinwhichseveralpointswereassigned
toonetestitem,usuallymoredifcultbutnotnecessarilymoreimportantthan
theothers.Strongcriticismwasalsodirectedattheuniformstandardforall.
Yet,thepositionofevaluationintheformofobjectivelanguagetestswas
stableduetoitspracticality,afeaturethatcannotbeignoredinmasseducation.
Contentvalidity,reliability,andobjectivity,crucialforexaminers)professional
safety,wereotherimportantsuccessfactors.Objectivetestingalsoprovedin-
dispensableforcertification.
Attemptstokeepadvantagesoftest-basedevaluation,buttointroduce
changesatthesametime,werestrengthenedwhenthequalitativeresearchpar-
adigmturnedagainstthequantitativepast,thusdevelopingAndreski)searlier
ideas.Tequalitativeapproachprovedtobewellrootedinethnography,cultural
anthropology,phenomenology,socialpsychologyandhumanisticpsychology,
thereforethescientificbasisforapplyingitinotherareaswassolid.Consider-
ationofthenon-quantifiable,emphasisonthecontextandmorefocusonthe
processweretrendspostulatedbysupportersofthequalitativeparadigm,who
alsosawthevalueofinductiveapproaches,lessstructureddataandadegree
ofresearchers)subjectivity(Bogdan&Biklen,1982;Denzin&Lincoln,2005;
Jacobs&Farrell,2001;Richards,2009).
3.Summativevs.formativeevaluation
Tequalitativeturninsociologyandpsychologyhadanalmostimmediate
eńectoneducation,whichduetothepromotionofprogressiveeducation,fo-
cusonpersonalgrowthandthedevelopmentofcurriculumtheoryandclass-
roomresearchwasreadyforradicalchanges(Bruner,1960;Bloometal.,1964;
Delamont,1976).
