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InaLekkai
1979).Thislongitudinalstudytracedthedevelopmentalpathsofchildrenwho
hadbeenexposedtoriskfactorssuchasperinatalstress,chronicpoverty,and
afamilyenvironmenttroubledbychronicdiscordandparentalpsychopathol-
ogy.Itsmajorfindingsshowthatone-thirdofthechildrenwhohadfourormore
riskfactorsduringtheirchildhoodweredoingfinebyadolescencewhereas,by
theageof32,two-thirdsofthechildrenwhodiddevelopproblemsduringado-
lescencewereleadingsuccessfuladultlives(Werner&Smith,1979;Werner,
1989;Werner,1993).
Muchofearlyresearchinthefielddealtwithidentifyingpersonal
attributesofthosechildrenwhoqualifiedas“resilient”,suchasauton-
omyorhighself-esteem.Asresearchintheareaevolved,researchers
acknowledgedthecontributionsofinternalandexternalfactorsthatcul-
tivateresilienceinindividualsandintroducedtheconceptofprotective
processesormechanismsintotheframeworkofresilienceresearch(Gar-
cia-Diaetal.,2013).Inhisreviewofstress-resistantchildren,Garmezy
(1985)concludedthatasetofthreemajorfactorswereimplicatedinthe
developmentofresilienceinchildren,locatedbothwithinthechildand
inthechild’senvironment:(1)dispositionalattributesofthechild,such
asautonomy,self-esteem,andpositivesocialorientation(2)familycohe-
sionandwarmth,andanabsenceofdiscord(3)theavailabilityanduseof
externalsupportsystemsbyparentsandchildren(Luthar&Zigler,1991;
Hanewald,2011;Rutter,1987).
DefinitionsofResilience
Forthepurposesofthispaper,Iconcentrateonthemeaningsofresiliencein
thesocio-psychologicalcontext.Therewasnointerestinreviewingliteratureon
resiliencefromcompletelydifferentcontextssuchasecologyorbusiness;rather,
theprimaryfocuswasonreviewingpsychologicalresiliencewhichhasitsroots
inchilddevelopmentresearch(Masten,2001;Werner,1993;Werner,1989).
Initsessence,resiliencereferstopositiveadaptationwithinthecontextofsig-
nificantadversity,theabilitytomaintainarelativelystablelevelofmentalhealth
despitebeingexposedtoseverelife-situations(Wald,Taylor,Asmundson,etal.,
2006,inHerrman,2011).Resilienceisconceptualisedasapersonaltrait:
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