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governmenttothetownsandabolishedtheliberumveto.Teadoption
ofthenewconstitution,however,quicklyledtocataclysmicdisasteras
agroupofconservativePolishnoblesopposedthechangesandinvited
Russianintervention.CatherineIIlaunchedanewinvasionofPoland
in1792(thepreviousonetookplacein1771andendedwiththeFirst
PartitionoftheCommonwealth)onthepretextofcrushingrevolution-
aries.Despitefierceresistance,thePoleswereoverwhelmed,andboth
RussiaandPrussiatooknewslicesofPolandintheSecondPartitionin
1793.Oneyearlater,thePolishpatriotTadeuszKościuszkowhohad
oncefoughtalongsideGeorgeWashingtonforAmericanindependence
launchedapopularinsurrectionagainsttheoccupyingpowers.Vastly
outnumbered,thePolesweresoondefeated,andKościuszko’sdefiant
gestureendedtragicallyinthetotalextinctionofthePolishstatebythe
TirdPartitionin1795.
Inthreesuccessivepartitions1772,1793and1795thean-
cientKingdomofPolandceasedtoexist.Herterritoriesandpopulation
wereentirelyabsorbedbyRussia,PrussiaandAustriaandKingStanisław
Augustuswasforcedtoabdicate.WarsawfelltothePrussiansandaf-
termanyyearsofrapiddevelopmentsoonbecameaprovincialtown.
In1797,thethreepartitioningpowerssignedasolemntreatyneverto
revivetheKingdomofPolandagain.However,thehopesofthethree
powersweresoonmadetolookridiculousthankstoNapoleon;in1807
theDuchyofWarsawwascreated,andthenattheCongressofVienna
asmallKingdomofPolandappearedonthemapofEurope.Temain
issueconfrontingthealliedstatesmenatViennaremainedtherecon-
structionofCentralEurope,especiallyPoland.Tiswassomewhatiron-
ic,sincePrussiahadoncebeenaduchyunderPolishsuzerainty,aPolish
armyhadoccupiedpartsofRussiaintheearlyseventeenthcentury,and
asrecentlyas1683,aPolishkinghadsavedViennafromaTurkishsiege.
However,thecollapseofFrenchpowerleftthefateoftheDuchyof
Warsawtobedecided:woulditremainasthekernelofanindependent
Polandorbere-partitionedbythethreeeasternpowersalongthelinesof
1795?OrwouldathirdoutcomeensuethereconstitutionofPoland
underRussiandomination?TefactthatRussianforcesoccupiedthe
areaseemedtogiveAlexanderIadecisiveedgeindeterminingitsfate
(muchasPoland’soccupationbySoviettroopslatergaveStalinadecisive
voicein1945).(SeeJarrett2013;Zamoyski1997;Halecki1943).
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