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THETRANSLATIONALTURNINMODERNISMSTUDIES
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Heydel2009)andlaunchedNewModernistStudiesinthelate1990s(Mao/
Walkowitz,2008).Teseculturalapproacheshavevastlyexpandedthe
horizonsofbothtranslationstudiesandcomparativeliterature,redefining
theirobjectsofstudy,andprovidingthemwithawealthofnewinsights
andfindings.Ontheotherhand,socompletewasthetransformationthat
somecametoarguethatthe“culturalturn”wasinefectCanattemptby
culturalstudiestocolonizethelessestablishedfieldoftranslationstudies’
(Munday2001,139).
Mostimportantly,the“culturalturn”entailedtherejectionofthe
normativeandsource-orientedapproachinfavourofdescriptive,target-
oriented,functionalandsystemicapproachestoliterarytranslation(see
Hermans1985,9-10).Amongthemostnotableconsequencesofthe“cul-
turalturn”forTranslationStudieswasaconsiderableexpansionofthese-
manticrangeandextentofthenotionofartistictranslation.Tus,inashif
ofparadigm,translationregardedasapurelylinguisticoperation,akindof
“structuralreplacement”ofthelinguisticelementsfromthesourcelanguage
bytheirformalcorrelatesinthetargetsystem(seeCatford1965,1,20)was
redefinedasasociallydeterminedmodeoflanguageuseinstitutionalised
intheconfinesofagivenhistoricalandculturalcommunity,situationally
contextualisedandgovernedbyculture-specificrulesandconditions.Per-
hapsthemostimportantcorollaryofredefiningtranslationasaculturally
distinctdiscursivepracticewasthe“translationalturn”inculturalstudies,
whichwillbeaddressedlaterinthisarticle.
TranslationasInstitution,torecallanarticlebyTeoHermans,which
isatoncean“interpersonalcommunication”and“socialbehaviour”
(Hermans1997,6),isnolongerdefinedintermsoftheimmanent,stable,
allegedlyahistoricalandtransculturalnatureofits“ideal”realisation
but,instead,accordingtohistorically-situatedandculturally-specific
institutionalcriteriaofgainingthestatusof“translation”inthetarget
culture.TeleadingpolysystemtheoreticianGideonToury’sworkinthe
early1980smarkedawatershedinthismethodologicalandtheoretical
strandofTranslationStudies.TeIsraelischolardefinedtranslationas
“anytargetlanguagetextwhichispresentedorregardedassuchwithin
thetargetsystemitself,onwhatevergrounds”(Toury1982,27;see1980,
14,37,43-45).AsMariaTymoczkocommented,thisdefinitionis“inclu-
siveofalltranslationsipsofacto”andthus,opened“thewayforcultural
